↑ Các cách gọi khác để chỉ Đế quốc La Mã của người La Mã và Hy Lạp cổ đại là Res publica Romana hoặc Imperium Romanorum (tương tự trong tiếng Hy Lạp: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων – Bản mẫu:Grc-tr – ["Lãnh địa (nghĩa đen là 'vương quốc' nhưng cũng có thể được suy thành 'đế quốc') của người La Mã"]) và Romania. Res publica có nghĩa là Toàn thể nhân dân La Mã (commonwealth trong tiếng Anh) và có thể sử dụng để chỉ cả hai thời kỳ cộng hòa lẫn đế quốc. Imperium Romanum (hoặc Romanorum) đề cập đến phạm vi lãnh thổ của nhà cầm quyền Rôma. Populus Romanus ("của người La Mã") Populus Romanus ("người La mã") thường được sử dụng để chỉ nước nhà La Mã trong các vấn đề liên quan đến các quốc gia khác. Thuật ngữ Romania, ban đầu là một thuật ngữ thông dụng để chỉ lãnh thổ của đế chế cũng như dân cư của nó, nó xuất hiện trong các nguồn Hy Lạp và La tinh từ thế kỷ thứ 4 trở đi và cuối cùng được chuyển sang để chỉ quốc Đông La Mã (xem R. L. Wolff, "Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople" in Speculum 23 (1948), pp. 1–34 and especially pp. 2–3).
↑ Between 1204 and 1261 there was an interregnum when the Empire was divided into the Empire of Nicaea, the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus, which were all contenders for rule of the Empire. The Empire of Nicaea is considered the legitimate continuation of the Roman Empire because it managed to re-take Constantinople.
↑ The final emperor to rule over all of the Roman Empire's territories before its conversion to a diarchy.
↑ Officially the final emperor of the Western empire.
↑ Final ruler to be universally recognized as Roman Emperor, including by the surviving empire in the East, the Papacy, and by kingdoms in Western Europe.
↑ Abbreviated "HS". Prices and values are usually expressed in sesterces; see #Currency and banking for currency denominations by period.
↑ Prudentius (348–413) in particular Christianizes the theme in his poetry, as noted by Marc Mastrangelo, The Roman Self in Late Antiquity: Prudentius and the Poetics of the Soul (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008), pp. 73, 203. St. Augustine, however, distinguished between the secular and eternal "Rome" in The City of God. See also J. Rufus Fears, "The Cult of Jupiter and Roman Imperial Ideology," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.17.1 (1981), p. 136, on how Classical Roman ideology influenced Christian Imperial doctrine; Bang, Peter Fibiger (2011) "The King of Kings: Universal Hegemony, Imperial Power, and a New Comparative History of Rome," in The Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives. John Wiley & Sons; and the Greek concept of globalism (oikouménē).
↑ The civis ("citizen") stands in explicit contrast to a peregrina, a foreign or non-Roman woman: A.N. Sherwin-White (1979) Roman Citizenship. Oxford University Press. pp. 211 and 268; Frier, pp. 31–32, 457. In the form of legal marriage called conubium, the father's legal status determined the child's, but conubium required that both spouses be free citizens. A soldier, for instance, was banned from marrying while in service, but if he formed a long-term union with a local woman while stationed in the provinces, he could marry her legally after he was discharged, and any children they had would be considered the offspring of citizens—in effect granting the woman retroactive citizenship. The ban was in place from the time of Augustus until it was rescinded by Septimius Severus in 197 AD. See Sara Elise Phang, The Marriage of Roman Soldiers (13 B.C.–A.D. 235): Law and Family in the Imperial Army (Brill, 2001), p. 2, and Pat Southern, The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 144.
↑ That is, a double standard was in place: a married woman could have sex only with her husband, but a married man did not commit adultery if he had sex with a prostitute, slave, or person of marginalized status. See McGinn, Thomas A. J. (1991). “Concubinage and the Lex Iulia on Adultery”. Transactions of the American Philological Association 121: 335–375 (342). JSTOR284457. doi:10.2307/284457. ; Martha C. Nussbaum (2002) "The Incomplete Feminism of Musonius Rufus, Platonist, Stoic, and Roman," in The Sleep of Reason: Erotic Experience and Sexual Ethics in Ancient Greece and Rome. University of Chicago Press. p. 305, noting that custom "allowed much latitude for personal negotiation and gradual social change"; Elaine Fantham, "Stuprum: Public Attitudes and Penalties for Sexual Offences in Republican Rome," in Roman Readings: Roman Response to Greek Literature from Plautus to Statius and Quintilian (Walter de Gruyter, 2011), p. 124, citing Papinian, De adulteriis I and Modestinus, Liber Regularum I. Eva Cantarella, Bisexuality in the Ancient World (Yale University Press, 1992, 2002, originally published 1988 in Italian), p. 104; Edwards, pp. 34–35.
↑ The relation of the equestrian order to the "public horse" and Roman cavalry parades and demonstrations (such as the Lusus Troiae) is complex, but those who participated in the latter seem, for instance, to have been the equites who were accorded the high-status (and quite limited) seating at the theatre by the Lex Roscia theatralis. Senators could not possess the "public horse." See Wiseman, pp. 78–79.
↑ Ancient Gades, in Roman Spain, and Patavium, in the Celtic north of Italy, were atypically wealthy cities, and having 500 equestrians in one city was unusual. Strabo 3.169, 5.213
1 2 Hekster, Olivier and Kaizer, Ted (2011). Preface to Frontiers in the Roman World. Proceedings of the Ninth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Durhan, 16–ngày 19 tháng 4 năm 2009). Brill. p. viii.
↑ Lintott, Andrew (1999) The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press. p. 114
↑ Eder, W. (1993) "The Augustan Principate as Binding Link," in Between Republic and Empire. University of California Press. p. 98. ISBN0520084470.
↑ Richardson, John (2011) "Fines provinciae", in Frontiers in the Roman World. Brill. p. 10.
↑ Richardson, John (2011) "Fines provinciae", in Frontiers in the Roman World. Brill. pp. 1–2.
↑ Syme, Ronald (1939) The Roman Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–4.
↑ Boatwright, Mary T. (2000) Hadrian and the Cities of the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press. p. 4.
↑ Dio Cassius 72.36.4, Loeb edition translated E. Cary
↑ Mattingly, David J. (2011) Imperialism, Power, and Identity: Experiencing the Roman Empire. Princeton University Press. p. 15
↑ Moretti, G. (1993) "The Other World and the 'Antipodes': The Myth of Unknown Countries between Antiquity and the Renaissance," in The Classical Tradition and the Americas: European Images of the Americas. Walter de Gruyter. p. 257
↑ Goldsmith, Raymond W. (2005). “An Estimate of the Size Anl Structure of the National Product of the Early Roman Empire”. Review of Income and Wealth 30 (3): 263–288. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4991.1984.tb00552.x.
↑ Hanson, J. W.; Ortman, S. G. (2017). “A systematic method for estimating the populations of Greek and Roman settlements”. Journal of Roman Archaeology (bằng tiếng Anh) 30: 301–324. ISSN1047-7594. doi:10.1017/S1047759400074134.
↑ Rochette, "Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire," p. 553; Lee I. Levine, Jerusalem: Portrait of the City in the Second Temple Period (538 B.C.E. – 70 C.E.) (Jewish Publication Society, 2002), p. 154.
↑ Rochette, "Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire," p. 560.
↑ Rochette, "Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire," p. 560; A.H.M. Jones, The Decline of the Ancient World (Longmanns, 1966), p. 346.
↑ Rochette, "Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire," các trang 562–563.
↑ Rochette, "Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire," các trang 558–559.
↑ Richard Miles, "Communicating Culture, Identity, and Power," in Experiencing Power: Culture, Identity and Power in the Roman Empire (Routledge, 200), các trang 58–59.
↑ Stefan Zimmer, "Indo-European," in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 961
↑ Curchin, Leonard A. (1995). “Literacy in the Roman Provinces: Qualitative and Quantitative Data from Central Spain”. The American Journal of Philology 116 (3): 461–476 (464). JSTOR295333. doi:10.2307/295333.
↑ Waquet, Françoise (2001) Latin, Or, The Empire of the Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century. Verso. pp. 1–2. ISBN1859844022.
↑ Jensen, Kristian (1996) "The Humanist Reform of Latin and Latin Teaching," in The Cambridge Companion to Renaissance Humanism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 63–64. ISBN0521436249.
↑ Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, p. 5.
1 2 3 Laurence Hélix. Histoire de la langue française. Ellipses Edition Marketing S.A. tr. 7. ISBN978-2-7298-6470-5. Le déclin du Gaulois et sa disparition ne s'expliquent pas seulement par des pratiques culturelles spécifiques: Lorsque les Romains conduits par César envahirent la Gaule, au 1er siecle avant J.-C., celle-ci romanisa de manière progressive et profonde. Pendant près de 500 ans, la fameuse période gallo-romaine, le gaulois et le latin parlé coexistèrent; au VIe siècle encore; le temoignage de Grégoire de Tours atteste la survivance de la langue gauloise.
↑ εἰ δὲ πάνυ ἐβιάζετο, Γαλατιστὶ ἐφθέγγετο. ‘If he was forced to, he spoke in Galatian’ (Vita S. Euthymii 55; after Eugenio Luján, ‘The Galatian Place Names in Ptolemy’, in: Javier de Hoz, Eugenio R. Luján, Patrick Sims-Williams (eds.), New Approaches to Celtic Place-Names in Ptolemy's Geography, Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas 2005, 264).
↑ Hist. Franc., book I, 32 Veniens vero Arvernos, delubrum illud, quod Gallica lingua Vasso Galatæ vocant, incendit, diruit, atque subvertit. And coming to Clermont [to the Arverni] he set on fire, overthrew and destroyed that shrine which they call Vasso Galatæ in the Gallic tongue,
1 2 3 Matasovic, Ranko (2007). “Insular Celtic as a Language Area”. Papers from the Workship within the Framework of the XIII International Congress of Celtic Studies. The Celtic Languages in Contact: 106.
1 2 Savignac, Jean-Paul (2004). Dictionnaire Français-Gaulois. Paris: La Différence. tr. 26.
↑ Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii, eds., Anna Bochnakowa & Stanislan Widlak, Krakow, 1995.
↑ Eugeen Roegiest, Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania (Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 2006), 83.
↑ Adams, J. N. (2007). “Chapter V – Regionalisms in provincial texts: Gaul”. The Regional Diversification of Latin 200 BC – AD 600. Cambridge. tr. 279–289. ISBN9780511482977. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511482977.
↑ Michael Peachin, introduction to The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World (Oxford University Press, 2011) p. 12.
↑ Peachin, introduction to The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World, p. 9, citing particularly Géza Alföldy, Römische Sozialgeschichte (first published 1975) on "the innate, potent, and widely institutionalized hierarchic character of Roman society," and các trang 21–22 (note 45 on the problems of "class" as a term).
↑ Peter Garnsey and Richard Saller, The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture (University of California Press, 1987), p. 107.
↑ Noreña, Carlos F. (2011) Imperial Ideals in the Roman West: Representation, Circulation, Power. Cambridge University Press. p. 7.
↑ Peachin, introduction to The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World, các trang 4–5.
↑ Aloys Winterling, Politics and Society in Imperial Rome (John Wiley & Sons, 2009, originally published 1988 in German), các trang 11, 21.
↑ Saller, Richard P. (1982, 2002) Personal Patronage under the Early Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 123, 176, 183
↑ Duncan, Anne (2006) Performance and Identity in the Classical World. Cambridge University Press. p. 164.
↑ Reinhold, Meyer (2002) Studies in Classical History and Society. Oxford University Press. pp. 25ff. and 42.
↑ Treggiari, Susan (1991) Roman Marriage: Iusti Coniuges from the Time of Cicero to the Time of Ulpian. Oxford University Press. pp. 258–259, 500–502. ISBN0198149395.
↑ Johnston, David (1999) Roman Law in Context. Cambridge University Press. Ch. 3.3
↑ Thomas, Yan (1991) "The Division of the Sexes in Roman Law," in A History of Women from Ancient Goddesses to Christian Saints. Harvard University Press. p. 134.
↑ Beth Severy, Augustus and the Family at the Birth of the Empire (Routledge, 2002; Taylor & Francis, 2004), p. 12.
↑ Severy, Beth (2002) Augustus and the Family at the Birth of the Empire. Routledge. p. 4. ISBN1134391838.
↑ Woodhull, Margaret L. (2004) "Matronly Patrons in the Early Roman Empire: The Case of Salvia Postuma," in Women's Influence on Classical Civilization. Routledge. p. 77.
↑ Keith Bradley, Slavery and Society at Rome (Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 12.
↑ Harris, W. V. (1999). “Demography, Geography and the Sources of Roman Slaves”. The Journal of Roman Studies 89: 62–75. JSTOR300734. doi:10.2307/300734.
↑ Taylor, Timothy (2010). “Believing the ancients: Quantitative and qualitative dimensions of slavery and the slave trade in later prehistoric Eurasia”. World Archaeology 33 (1): 27–43. JSTOR827887. arXiv:0706.4406. doi:10.1080/00438240120047618.
↑ Harper, Kyle (2011) Slavery in the Late Roman World, AD 275–425. Cambridge University Press. pp. 10–16.
↑ Frier and McGinn, A Casebook of Family Law, p. 7.
↑ McGinn, Thomas A.J. (1998) Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome. Oxford University Press. p. 314. ISBN0195161327.
↑ Gardner, Jane F. (1991) Women in Roman Law and Society. Indiana University Press. p. 119.
↑ Frier and McGinn, A Casebook on Roman Law, pp. 31, 33.
↑ Christopher J. Fuhrmann, Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and Public Order (Oxford University Press, 2012), pp. 21–41.
↑ Frier and McGinn, A Casebook on Roman Family Law, p. 21.
↑ Richard Gamauf, "Slaves Doing Business: The Role of Roman Law in the Economy of a Roman Household," in European Review of History 16.3 (2009) 331–346.
↑ McGinn, Prostitution, Sexuality, and the Law, p. 288ff.
↑ Abusch, Ra'anan (2003) "Circumcision and Castration under Roman Law in the Early Empire," in The Covenant of Circumcision: New Perspectives on an Ancient Jewish Rite. Brandeis University Press. pp. 77–78
↑ Schäfer, Peter (1983, 2003) The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Routledge. p. 150.
↑ Goodwin, Stefan (2009). Africa in Europe: Antiquity into the Age of Global Expansion. Lexington Books. Vol. 1, p. 41, ISBN0739117262, noting that "Roman slavery was a nonracist and fluid system".
↑ Millar, p. 88. The standard complement of 600 was flexible; twenty quaestors, for instance, held office each year and were thus admitted to the Senate regardless of whether there were "open" seats.
↑ Eck, "Emperor, Senate and Magistrates," pp. 218–219.
↑ His name was Tiberius Claudius Gordianus; Eck, "Emperor, Senate and Magistrates," p. 219.
↑ MacMullen, Ramsay (1966). “Provincial Languages in the Roman Empire”. The American Journal of Philology 87 (1): 1–17. JSTOR292973. doi:10.2307/292973.
↑ Wiseman, "The Definition of Eques Romanus," pp. 71–72, 76.
↑ Fear, Andrew (2007) "War and Society," in The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare: Rome from the Late Republic to the Late Empire. Cambridge University Press, vol. 2. pp. 214–215. ISBN0521782740.
↑ Gaughan, Judy E. (2010) Murder Was Not a Crime: Homicide and Power in the Roman Republic. University of Texas Press. p. 91. ISBN0292725671.
↑ Kelly, Gordon P. (2006) A History of Exile in the Roman Republic. Cambridge University Press. p. 8. ISBN0521848601.
↑ Coleman, K. M. (2012). “Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments”. Journal of Roman Studies 80: 44–73. JSTOR300280. doi:10.2307/300280.
↑ Robinson, O.F. (2007) Penal Practice and Penal Policy in Ancient Rome. Routledge. p. 108.
↑ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003). “The Life of a Roman Soldier”. The Complete Roman Army. London: Thames & Hudson. tr. 80. ISBN0-500-05124-0.
↑ Olivier J. Hekster, "Fighting for Rome: The Emperor as a Military Leader," in Impact of the Roman Army (200 BC–AD 476) (Brill, 2007), p. 96.
1 2 3 The complete Roman army by Adrian Goldsworthy, 2003 chapter The Army of the Principate, p.50; ISBN 0-500-05124-0
↑ The complete Roman army by Adrian Goldsworthy, 2005 chapter The Army of the Principate, p.183; ISBN 0-500-05124-0
↑ Rome and her enemies published by Osprey, 2005 part 3 Early Empire 27BC — AD 235, chapter 9 The Romans, section Remuneration, p.183; ISBN 978-1-84603-336-0
↑ The complete Roman army by Adrian Goldsworthy 2003, chapter After Service, p.114; ISBN 0-500-05124-0
↑ Ando, "The Administration of the Provinces," p. 183.
↑ Ando, "The Administration of the Provinces," pp. 177–179. Most government records that are preserved come from Roman Egypt, where the climate preserved the papyri.
↑ Ando, "The Administration of the Provinces," p. 179. The exclusion of Egypt from the senatorial provinces dates to the rise of Octavian before he became Augustus: Egypt had been the stronghold of his last opposition, Mark Antony and his ally Cleopatra.
1 2 Ando, "The Administration of the Provinces," p. 180.
↑ Peter Garnsey and Richard Saller, The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture (University of California Press, 1987), p. 110.
↑ Garnsey and Saller, The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture, p. 110; Clifford Ando, "The Administration of the Provinces," in A Companion to the Roman Empire (Blackwell, 2010), pp. 184–185.
↑ Adda B. Bozeman, Politics and Culture in International History from the Ancient Near East to the Opening of the Modern Age (Transaction Publishers, 2010, 2nd ed., originally published 1960 by Princeton University Press), pp. 208–20
↑ Garnsey and Saller, The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture, p. 110; Ando, "The Administration of the Provinces," pp. 184–185. This practice was established in the Republic; see for instance the case of Contrebian water rights heard by G. Valerius Flaccus as governor of Hispania in the 90s–80s BC.
↑ Garnsey and Saller, The Roman Empire, pp. 110–111.
↑ Elizabeth DePalma Digeser, The Making of a Christian Empire: Lactantius and Rome (Cornell University Press, 2000), p. 53.
↑ Mattingly, "The Imperial Economy," pp. 286, 295.
↑ David Kessler and Peter Temin, "Money and Prices in the Early Roman Empire," in The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans, in The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans (Oxford University Press, 2008), n.p.
↑ Kenneth W. Hart, Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700 (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 135.
↑ Mireille Corbier, "Coinage and Taxation: The State's Point of View, A.D. 193–337," in Cambridge Ancient History: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193–197 (Cambridge University Press, 2005), vol. 12, p. 333.
↑ Colin Wells, The Roman Empire (Harvard University Press, 1984, 1992), p. 8.
↑ W.V. Harris, "The Nature of Roman Money," in The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans, n.p.
↑ Kessler and Temin, "Money and Prices in the Early Roman Empire," n.p.
↑ Walter Scheidel, "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires", in: Scheidel, Walter, ed. (2009): Rome and China. Comparative Perspectives on Ancient World Empires (Oxford University Press, 2009), New York, ISBN 978-0-19-533690-0, pp. 137–207, especially p. 205.
1 2 3 Harris, "The Nature of Roman Money," in The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans, n.p.
↑ Richard Duncan-Jones, Money and Government in the Roman Empire (Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 3–4.
↑ Hart, Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, p. 125–136.
↑ Hart, Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, pp. 128–129.
↑ Harris, "The Nature of Roman Money," in The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans, n.p.; Hart, Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, pp. 128–129.
↑ "Mining," in Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World p. 579.
↑ Craddock, Paul T. (2008): "Mining and Metallurgy", in: Oleson, John Peter (ed.): The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1, p. 108; Sim, David; Ridge, Isabel (2002): Iron for the Eagles. The Iron Industry of Roman Britain, Tempus, Stroud, Gloucestershire, ISBN 0-7524-1900-5, p. 23; Healy, John F. (1978): Mining and Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World, Thames and Hudson, London, ISBN 0-500-40035-0, p. 196. Assumes a productive capacity of c. 1.5 kg per capita.Healy, John F. (1978): Mining and Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World, Thames and Hudson, London, ISBN 0-500-40035-0, p. 196
1 2 Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. (1996): "History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution During Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice", Science, Vol. 272, No. 5259, pp. 246–249 (366–369); cf. also Wilson, Andrew (2002): "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92, pp. 1–32 (25–29)
↑ Callataÿ, François de (2005): "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 18, pp. 361–372 (361–369); Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. (1996): "History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution During Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice", Science, Vol. 272, No. 5259, pp. 246–249 (247, fig. 1 and 2; 248, table 1); Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; Patterson, Clair C.; Boutron, Claude F. (1994): "Greenland Ice Evidence of Hemispheric Lead Pollution Two Millennia Ago by Greek and Roman Civilizations", Science, Vol. 265, No. 5180, pp. 1841–1843; Settle, Dorothy M.; Patterson, Clair C. (1980): "Lead in Albacore: Guide to Lead Pollution in Americans", Science, Vol. 207, No. 4436, pp. 1167–1176 (1170f.)
↑ Patterson, C. C. (1972): "Silver Stocks and Losses in Ancient and Medieval Times", The Economic History Review, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 205–235 (228, table 6); Callataÿ, François de (2005): "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 18, pp. 361–372 (365f.)
↑ Patterson, C. C. (1972): "Silver Stocks and Losses in Ancient and Medieval Times", The Economic History Review, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 205–235 (216, table 2); Callataÿ, François de (2005): "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 18, pp. 361–372 (365f.)
↑ Hopkins, The Political Economy of the Roman Empire, p. 197.
↑ Élise Marlière, "Le tonneua en Gaule romaine," Gallia 58 (2001) 181–210, especially p. 184; Corbier, "Coinage, Society, and Economy," in CAH 12, p. 404.
↑ Kevin Greene, The Archaeology of the Roman Economy p. 17.
↑ W.V. Harris, "Trade," in The Cambridge Ancient History: The High Empire A.D. 70–192 (Cambridge University Press, 2000), vol. 11, p. 713.
↑ Ray Laurence, "Land Transport in Roman Italy: Costs, Practice and the Economy," in Trade, Traders and the Ancient City (Routledge, 1998), p. 129.
↑ Keith Hopkins, "The Political Economy of the Roman Empire," in The Dynamics of Ancient Empires: State Power from Assyria to Byzantium (Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 187.
↑ Lo Cascio, Elio; Malanima, Paolo (Dec. 2009): "GDP in Pre-Modern Agrarian Economies (1–1820 AD). A Revision of the Estimates", Rivista di storia economica, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 391–420 (391–401)
↑ W. L. MacDonald, The Architecture of the Roman Empire, rev. ed. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1982, fig. 131B; Lechtman and Hobbs "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution"
↑ Encyclopaedia Britannica, Apollodorus of Damascus, "Greek engineer and architect who worked primarily for the Roman emperor Trajan." George Sarton (1936), "The Unity and Diversity of the Mediterranean World", Osiris 2: 406-463 [430] Giuliana Calcani, Maamoun Abdulkarim (2003). Apollodorus of Damascus and Trajan's Column: From Tradition to Project. L'Erma di Bretschneider. tr. 11. ISBN88-8265-233-5. ...focusing on the brilliant architect Apollodorus of Damascus. This famous Syrian personage represents... Hong-Sen Yan, Marco Ceccarelli (2009). International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings of HMM 2008. Springer. tr. 86. ISBN1-4020-9484-1. He had Syrian origins coming from Damascus
↑ Chandler, Fiona "The Usborne Internet Linked Encyclopedia of the Roman World", page 80. Usborne Publishing 2001
↑ Forman, Joan "The Romans", page 34. Macdonald Educational Ltd. 1975
↑ J. Crow 2007 "Earth, walls and water in Late Antique Constantinople" in Technology in Transition AD 300–650 in ed. L.Lavan, E.Zanini & A. Sarantis Brill, Leiden
↑ Jones, R. F. J. and Bird, D. G., Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna, Journal of Roman Studies 62 (1972): 59-74.
↑ Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 149
↑ Jones, Mark Wilson Principles of Roman Architecture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000.
↑ Kevin Greene, "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered", The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 53, No. 1. (Feb., 2000), pp. 29–59 (39)
↑ See also Harland, P. A., "Honours and Worship: Emperors, Imperial Cults and Associations at Ephesus (First to Third Centuries C.E.)", Studies in Religion/Sciences religieuses 25 (1996) 319–334.
